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29.10.2023
34 6 minutes read

Способность человека делать выбор без принуждения называется свободой воли. И так как мы постоянно принимаем решения и выбираем свой жизненный путь, то разговоры об отсутствии свободы воли кажутся абсурдным. Некоторые философы и ученые, однако, настаивают на том, что никто никогда осмысленно не выбирает то, что делает. В их числе профессор Стэндфордского университета, нейроэндокринолог Роберт Сапольски. Он убежден, что все наши действия сводятся к биологии, воспитанию, обстоятельствам и любым неожиданностям, которые подкидывает нам жизнь. «Мы, как и любой живой организм, всего лишь «биологические машины». У нас нет свободы воли», – утверждает ученый. К такому выводу Сапольски пришел после четырех десятилетий интенсивного изучения поведения человека и приматов.

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Свобода воли — способность человека без принуждения делать выбор между возможными способами действий.

Свобода воли выражается в том, что человек может достичь душевного покоя, избавившись от неразумных желаний и неоправданных надежд, если будет следовать в жизни традиционному греческому идеалу «меры».

Содержание

  • 1 Что такое свобода воли?
  • 2 Детерминизм и свобода воли
  • 3 Роберт Сапольски и поведение человека
  • 4 Сапольски против свободы воли
  • 5 Как жить без свободы воли?

Что такое свобода воли?

В философии и науке под свободной волей традиционно понимается предполагаемая сила или способность человека принимать решения или совершать действия независимо от каких-либо предшествующих событий. К аргументам в пользу существования свободы воли относится субъективное переживание свободы, чувство вины, религиозные убеждения и общепринятые предположения об индивидуальной моральной ответственности, лежащей в основе концепций закона, вознаграждения и наказания.

Концепция радикальной, вечной и часто мучительной свободы выбора является характерной чертой экзистенциализма. Жан-Поль Сартр (1905-80), например, говорил об индивиде, “обреченном быть свободным”.

Термин “свобода воли” появился за последние два тысячелетия как обозначение значительного вида контроля над собственными действиями. Вопросы, касающиеся природы и существования такого рода контроля и его истинного значения, рассматривались Платоном, Аристотелем, Августином, Фомой Аквинским, Декартом и Кантом. Таким образом, все разговоры о свободе воли неизбежно влекут за собой споры о метафизике и этике.

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Возможно, все зависит от удачи и черт характера, необходимых для борьбы с трудностями и невезением.

Правда, чтобы понять, о каком контроле идет речь, приходится рассматривать вопросы о причинно-следственных связях, законах природы, времени, мотивации и, в более общем плане, личности человека. Когда же речь заходит о том, какое значение имеет для нас свобода воли, не избежать размышлений о добре и зле, добродетели и пороке, порицании и похвале, награде и наказании.

Читайте также: Реальность не то, чем кажется: как и почему мозг создает иллюзии?

Несмотря на то, что тема свободы воли традиционно относится к философии и этике, все больше ученых, в частности, нейробиологов и бихевиористов, рассматривают этот странный контроль исключительно с научной точки зрения. Но прежде чем перейти к тому, как современная наука понимает свободу воли, рассмотрим причины, по которым с ее существованием многие не согласны.

Детерминизм и свобода воли

Начнем с того, что существование свободы воли отрицают некоторые сторонники детерминизма – тезиса о том, что каждое событие во Вселенной причинно неизбежно. Детерминизм подразумевает, что в ситуации, в которой люди принимают определенное решение или совершают определенное действие, невозможно принять какое-либо другое решение или совершить какое-либо другое действие. Другими словами, утверждение о том, что люди могли бы принять другое решение или поступить иначе, чем они поступили на самом деле – не правда.

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Свобода воли понимается как необходимое условие моральной ответственности

Философов и ученых, которые считают, что детерминизм в этом смысле несовместим со свободой воли, называют «жесткими детерминистами«. Их оппоненты, так называемые «мягкие детерменисты», считают, что детерминизм и свобода воли, в конечном итоге совместимы. В большинстве случаев сторонники мягкого детерминизма пытаются достичь этого примирения путем пересмотра общепринятого понятия свободы воли.

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Крайней альтернативой детерминизму является индетерминизм – точка зрения, согласно которой по крайней мере некоторые события не имеют детерминированной причины, а происходят случайным образом. Индетерминизм в некоторой степени подтверждается исследованиями в области квантовой механики, которые предполагают, что некоторые события на квантовом уровне в принципе непредсказуемы (и, следовательно, случайны).

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В современной науке, в частности, в когнитивных науках проблема свобода воли рассматривается как вопрос обоснования произвольности человека

Философы и ученые, которые верят, что Вселенная недетерминирована и что люди обладают свободой воли, известны как “либертарианцы” (либертарианство в этом смысле не следует путать со школой политической философии, называемой либертарианством). Хотя можно утверждать, что Вселенная недетерминирована и что действия человека, тем не менее, детерминированы, немногие современные философы отстаивают эту точку зрения.

Это интересно: Научный метод: как избавиться от вредных привычек?

Роберт Сапольски и поведение человека

Знаменитый ученый–бихевиорист Роберт Сапольски полон решимости раз и навсегда избавиться от свободы воли и показать, что столкновение с ее несуществованием не обязательно обрекает нас на аморальность или отчаяние.

Его стратегия амбициозна: отследить каждое звено причинно-следственной цепочки, кульминацией которой является поведение человека, начиная с того, что происходит в мозге в последние несколько миллисекунд перед тем, как мы начинаем действовать, вплоть до того, как наш мозг формируется под влиянием раннего опыта, и даже до этого. Все эти факторы Сапольски рассматривает на уровне нейротрансмиттеров и генов.

Напомним, что Сапольски является одним из ведущих мировых ученых в области биологии поведения человека. Получивший Стипендию Макартура в возрасте 30 лет, исследователь провел более четырех десятилетий, изучая поведение человека и приматов, в частности стресс и социальное поведение бабуинов.

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Роберт Сапольски – профессор биологии, неврологии и нейрохирургии Стэндфордского универсистета, популяризатор науки.

Сапольски о депрессии и теории химического дисбаланса – что нужно знать?

Ученый проводил с павианами по восемь-десять часов в день. Роберт больше тридцати лет каждое лето возвращался в Африку к одной и той же группе животных. Эти исследования позже легли в основу книги «Записки примата: необычайная жизнь ученого среди павианов». Наибольшую известность в нашей стране Сапольски получил благодаря переводу курса лекций «Биология поведения человека», прослушать который будет интересно каждому (рекомендуем).

Книги знаменитого исследователя также переведены на русский язык, а знакомство с его трудами можно начать с таких произведений как «Кто мы такие? Гены, наше тело, общество» и «Психология стресса». Кстати, в одной из ранее опубликованных статей мы упоминали, что с 2020 года 66-летний профессор работает над созданием книги, посвященной свободе воли, а точнее, причинам, по которым ее не существует.

Свобода воли – миф или реальность? - Hi-News.ru">/**/ article{display:block}body{font-size:14px;line-height:1}ol,ul{list-style:none;padding:0;margin:0}html,body{font:400 -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}html,body,div,span,iframe,h1,p,a,img,ins,strong,b,form,article,time{margin:0;padding:0;border:0;font-size:100%;-webkit-text-size-adjust:100%;font-family:-apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif;vertical-align:baseline;-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased}body{font-size:14px;line-height:1;min-width:1124px}ol,ul{list-style:none;padding:0;margin:0}b,strong{font-weight:700}img{overflow:hidden;height:auto;max-width:100%;font:400 10px -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}p{color:#000;margin-bottom:15px;font:400 20px/1.5 -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}h1{color:#000;margin:0 0 28px 0;font:700 54px/1 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Роберт Сапольски держит в руках свою новую книгу

Что же до новой работы профессора, то книга под названием «Целеустремленность: жизнь без свободы воли» вышла в свет в середине октября, так что российским читателям придется немного ее подождать.

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Сапольски против свободы воли

Еще до выхода своей новой книги, профессор регулярно высказывал сомнения в существовании свободы воли. Его вердикт таков: «Мир испорчен и стал намного, намного более несправедливым из-за того, что мы вознаграждаем людей и наказываем их за то, что они не могут контролировать. У нас нет свободы воли. Перестаньте приписывать нам то, чего на самом деле нет», – сказал Сапольски в интервью LA Times.

Сапольски убежден, что если бы свобода воли существовала, то должна была бы функционировать на биологическом уровне совершенно независимо от организма, а значит ученые смогли бы идентифицировать нейроны, которые вызывают определенное поведение. Более того, деятельность абсолютно любого нейрона в мозге не имела бы значения, точно так же как окружающая среда, уровень гормонов и культурные нормы. Однако все эти аспекты невероятно важны.

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Свободы воли, если верить Сапольски, не существует. Что, возможно, не так уж и плохо

В любой значимый момент мы принимаем решения, основанные на наших вкусах и пристрастиях, ценностях и характере. Все это откуда-то берется, и наш разум не действует независимо. Мы тратим всю свою жизнь на то, чтобы научиться реагировать на различные раздражители — например, на неприятный запах. То, как мы реагируем на запах, определяется нашими генами, которые запрограммировали и наши обонятельные рецепторы и поведение, – отмечает профессор Стэндфордского университета в интервью New York Times.

Он также приводит аргументы против таких идей, как сила воли. Да, есть люди, которые “преодолевали невезение с поразительным упорством и выдержкой”, но их способность к упорству и выдержке была дарована удачей. И определенными чертами характера.

Не пропустите: Что такое сознание и как оно появилось?

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Лекции знаменитого нейробиолога, профессора Стэнфорда Роберта Сапольски имеют огромный резонанс, а книги раскупаются миллионными тиражами.

Среди критиков Сапольски немало тех, кто отмечает кое-что любопытное: если свободы воли не существует, то не существует и моральной ответственности. В ответ на критику профессор говорит, что «сама идея о том, что мы несем ответственность за свои действия, является «совершенно бесполезным определением». К счастью, Сапольски хочет, чтобы люди были счастливы, а не страдали — что, по его признанию, несколько не соответствует контексту его главного аргумента.

Как жить без свободы воли?

Журналисты, которые ознакомились с новой книгой Сапольски отмечают, что когда автор обращается к вопросу о том, как мы должны жить в отсутствие свободы воли, его гуманное мировоззрение выходит на первый план. Некоторые утверждают, что осознание того, что нам не хватает свободы, может превратить нас в моральных монстров.

Сапольски, все же, приводит трогательные доводы в пользу того, что на самом деле это причина жить с глубоким прощением и пониманием – за то, что видишь “абсурдность ненависти к любому человеку за все, что он сделал”, – заключают журналисты.

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«Я не думаю, что все безнадежно, ведь отсутствие свободы воли не означает, что ничего не может измениться. Просто нужно понять тот факт, что мы не выбираем путь менять себя — нас изменяют обстоятельства, и в этом прямое влияние биологии», – говорит Сапольски

Здесь, однако, скрывается знакомый парадокс, как и при любом обсуждении того, как мы должны реагировать на отсутствие свободы воли: если свободы воли нет, то, конечно, мы просто будем реагировать так, как мы реагируем? Но значит ли это, что увлекательная и сострадательная книга Сапольски не изменит то, что люди думают или как ведут себя по отношению друг к другу. Это просто означает, что у них нет выбора и возможности что-то изменить.

Это интересно: Суеверия с точки зрения науки: почему мы верим в сверхъестественное?

Безусловно, аргументы и идеи Сапольски могут расстроить многих. Однако всегда есть вероятность того, что свобода воли скрывается в какойто части мозга, еще не исследованной учеными. Но даже если это не так, философия по-прежнему выступает за существование свободы воли.

Источник

29.10.2023
34 6 minutes read
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26.05.2024

Миллиардерша умерла внутри Tesla Model X — кто виноват? — Hi-News.ru»>/**/ article{display:block}body{font-size:14px;line-height:1}ol,ul{list-style:none;padding:0;margin:0}html,body{font:400 -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}html,body,div,span,iframe,h1,p,a,img,ins,strong,b,form,article,time{margin:0;padding:0;border:0;font-size:100%;-webkit-text-size-adjust:100%;font-family:-apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif;vertical-align:baseline;-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased}body{font-size:14px;line-height:1;min-width:1124px}ol,ul{list-style:none;padding:0;margin:0}b,strong{font-weight:700}img{overflow:hidden;height:auto;max-width:100%;font:400 10px -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}p{color:#000;margin-bottom:15px;font:400 20px/1.5 -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}h1{color:#000;margin:0 0 28px 0;font:700 54px/1 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14.03.2024

В Африке появился новый «зомби-наркотик». Что это такое? — Hi-News.ru»>/**/ article{display:block}body{font-size:14px;line-height:1}ol,ul{list-style:none;padding:0;margin:0}html,body{font:400 -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}html,body,div,span,iframe,h1,p,a,img,ins,strong,b,form,article,time{margin:0;padding:0;border:0;font-size:100%;-webkit-text-size-adjust:100%;font-family:-apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif;vertical-align:baseline;-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased}body{font-size:14px;line-height:1;min-width:1124px}ol,ul{list-style:none;padding:0;margin:0}b,strong{font-weight:700}img{overflow:hidden;height:auto;max-width:100%;font:400 10px -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}p{color:#000;margin-bottom:15px;font:400 20px/1.5 -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}h1{color:#000;margin:0 0 28px 0;font:700 54px/1 -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}.clearfix:before{content:»»;display:table}.clearfix:after{content:»»;display:table;clear:both}#page{position:relative;width:1090px;margin:0 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24.01.2024

Открыт необычный вид динозавров, которые жили под землей — Hi-News.ru»>/**/ article{display:block}body{font-size:14px;line-height:1}ol,ul{list-style:none;padding:0;margin:0}html,body{font:400 -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}html,body,div,span,iframe,h1,p,a,img,ins,strong,b,form,article,time{margin:0;padding:0;border:0;font-size:100%;-webkit-text-size-adjust:100%;font-family:-apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif;vertical-align:baseline;-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased}body{font-size:14px;line-height:1;min-width:1124px}ol,ul{list-style:none;padding:0;margin:0}b,strong{font-weight:700}img{overflow:hidden;height:auto;max-width:100%;font:400 10px -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}p{color:#000;margin-bottom:15px;font:400 20px/1.5 -apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,sans-serif}h1{color:#000;margin:0 0 28px 0;font:700 54px/1 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19.07.2024
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